Norman Brook was recently asked to present a level 1 coach education session on coaching the track endurance events for the Western Province Athletics Assoiaction.  The following notes accompanied his presentation giving a brief overview of training for endurance events on the track.

In the sport of athletics the track endurance events are 800m, 1500m, 3000m 5000m, 10000m and 3000m steeplechase.  These notes provide some basic ideas on the training of athletes for endurance track events.  Care should be taken in interpreting these notes as training loads, the structure, amount and intensity of training varies greatly according to an athlete’s age, level of ability, and stage of training fitness.

Training Phases

Training for endurance track events builds gradually through three phases:

• General Preparation – where the emphasis is on developing a base of endurance and general all round physical fitness;
• Specific Preparation – where the emphasis is on maintaining endurance/physical fitness and developing endurance specific to the competitive distance and basic speed.
• Competition – where the emphasis is on sharpening for peak performance, on being rested to race, and on maintaining general and specific fitness.

General Preparation

In the period of general preparation the athlete slowly builds a platform of mainly aerobic endurance fitness through a mixture of a) longer slow paced runs, b) medium paced runs, and c) shorter fast paced runs.  The shorter paced runs may include training such as fartlek or interval training more often or not conducted away from the track.

In addition to endurance training, the athlete will also develop their general fitness through core stability work, strength training and flexibility training.

Training may also be included in this phase that develops the athletes running technique in preparation for speed training in the specific and competition phases of training.

Special Preparation

In this phase the athlete will continue with sufficient general training to maintain the levels of fitness gained during the general preparation phase.  On top of this the athlete will include training at speeds that reflect the athlete’s competitive distance and goals.  This will include training conducted at race pace for the athlete’s main distance, under distance and above distance.

Main Distance	Under Distance	Over Distance
800m	400m	1500m
1500m	800m	3000m
3000m	1500m	5000m

This type of training is conducted on the track and consists of interval training where the session is divided into intervals of running interspersed with periods of recovery.  The key is maintaining quality of training with recoveries gradually being reduced as the athlete improves. Junior athletes tend to use repetitions of a shorter distance than adults.  So for example if we are training at race pace for 800m, a junior athlete might perform repetitions of 200m or 300m whilst an adult may use distances of 200m, 300m, 400m, or 600m.

Training Session Examples

The following would be examples of interval training for a 1500m runner.  Three track sessions are g conducted each week, one at 1500m pace, one at 800m pace and the other at 3000m pace.

Main Distance	Senior Level	Junior level
800m	12   x 200m	3   x 3 x 200m
1500m	10   x 400m	2   x 4 x 300m
3000m	4   x 1000m	3-4   x 1000m

 

During the special preparation phase and continued into the competition phase will be the development of speed.  A key factor in developing in speed is good running technique.  Running technique can be developed whilst as a component of the warm-up through the inclusion of technique drills and by emphasising technique during the sprint activity that usually concludes the warm-up.  Good technique should also be emphasised during interval running sessions.

Technique Drills

Preference should be given to emphasising aspects of good technique whilst running.

• Running Tall – hips high, running proud, up on toes, looking straight ahead;
• High Thighs – Picking thighs up, running tall, avoid sitting down, squeeze thighs a bit higher;
• Relaxed shoulders – running tall, keep shoulders relaxed and low, allow full arm movement;
• Elbows in – running tall, shoulders relaxed, thumbs on fingers, elbows in.

Speed can also be developed through repetitions over distances of 50m-150m.  These require good recovery periods in between runs and should emphasise relaxed running.

Competition Phase

Once an athlete has entered the competition phase the emphasis is on making sure the runner is fully rested prior to racing.  Training seeks to maintain fitness and to sharpen the runner by focusing on speed.  The main training is completed early in the week assuming the athlete is racing at a weekend.  The runner aims to taper down towards each race.

The following article was presented at the Next Steps Sports Development Symposium in Port of Spain, Trinidad, in November 2011.

Community based “sport for development” organisations in Africa perform a significant role in encouraging youth to play regular sport and use sport as a vehicle to promote social change by developing the life skills of young people. To reach youth (boys and girls) they need amongst other resources a team of community coaches skilled in sports coaching and the use of sport to teach life skills.  Each organisation’s coaching workforce becomes a critical element of their ability to deliver both sports activity and life skills training. As the sport for development organisation, Hoops for Hope[i] describes them, our community coaches are our “Most Valuable Players” (MVPs).

The Importance of Quality Sport

In the context of sport which is played for “sports sake”, coaches play an important role in developing participant’s sporting abilities. In the world of sport for development, the coach’s role is actually about promoting social change through the medium of sport.  Community based coaches in sport for development organisations contribute to a range of social issues including HIV prevention, violence prevention, gender equality, alcohol and drug abuse, education, environmental awareness and the socio-economic empowerment of young people.

S4D Organisations reach youth through their coaching workforce

Some overlap exists between programmes designed for “sport for sports sake” and “sport for social change”.  The coach who is focused on coaching sport for sports sake still has some responsibility to develop positive behavioural characteristics amongst their players.  As well as seeking to develop the sporting ability of the young people they coach, these coaches strive to develop young people holistically. This approach develops the psycho-social characteristics as well as the sports skills of the player.

The community coach working in a sport for development setting equally needs to develop the sports skills of the youth they work with, not just their life skills. If coaches want young people to keep returning to their sessions, the sessions need to offer a quality sports experience.  Indeed, whilst the community coach is focused on addressing specific social issues through life skills activity, they still need to deliver quality sport.  In doing so they may even identify talented young players whom they will wish to sign post to sport performance or talent coaching.

The Millenium Development Goals

Pursuit of development or peace goals, such as those shown above does not exclude the idea of coaches delivering a positive sporting experience.  To the contrary, if we are to create the right settings to develop young people and promote social change, the quality of their sporting experience is critical.  One of my colleagues, Norwegian Sports Development consultant, Pelle Kvalsund, describes sport as the glue.[ii] 

“Sport is what attracts the children and it’s therefore ‘the glue’. If we reduce sport too much, the glue becomes less effective, and the effects of sport start to reduce. Although it’s important to use sport to spread important health messages, we must make sure we don’t ‘kill sport’ in the process.”

Good quality sports instruction encourages sustained participation by youth and allows them to develop their sports and life skills.  Participation in quality sports activities motivates youth to keep attending the sports sessions.  The sports content of “sport for development” programmes needs therefore to be of a similar high quality to that advocated in modern sports programmes.

Equally the life skills taught by sport for development organisations need to be of a high quality.  Quality life skills activities engage youth and help them increase their knowledge.  Life skills activities, like sports skills, need to be appropriate to each young person’s age and stage of development.

A Theory of Change

The question in many peoples’ minds is how participation in sport leads to social change.  This is a question that people working in the sport for development often find difficult to answer. They know through their experience that sport can help develop young people in a positive way, but like others find it hard to make the link between playing sport and their chosen social theme.  How can sport really help prevent HIV transmission, resolve conflict, or protect the environment?  The answer to this can be found in developing a theory of change.

At the heart of my thinking and of a number of sport for development programmes is a theory of change that embraces the philosophy of positive youth development.  Positive youth development theory and practice has been well researched (Schulman & Davies, 2007)[iii] and is used internationally as a model of youth development.

When sport is delivered in an appropriate manner it can create an environment that develops youth who are more likely to make positive healthy decisions, avoid risk behaviour, and make a contribution back to their family and community.  According to Lerner et al (2000)[iv] positive youth development programmes build the characteristics of confidence, character, competence, caring and connection in young people.  This happens when sport programmes:

• take place in a safe setting (safe spaces for sport);
• provide for positive adult-youth relationships (the coach);
• are of a long term duration (sustained and regular activity);
• provide opportunities for young people to build their skills (sports skills and life skills);
• provide for youth participation and leadership (peer or young sports leaders).

A theory of change for sport for development programmes can therefore be proposed that envisages positive youth being developed through sustained, regular, quality sports and life skills training.  As with all theory of change models we need to work backwards linking the desired outcomes/impact of the programme to the activity or actions of the programme demonstrating in the process how those activities or actions address the social problem.

For the purpose of this article we will look at Millennium Development Goal 6 and in particular  HIV and AIDS prevention. The behavioural drivers of the HIV pandemic include early sexual debut, multiple & concurrent sexual partners, inter-generational & transactional sex, lack of condom use, substance misuse, and gender based violence.

If we are to combat HIV transmission amongst youth we need them to make positive healthy decisions and to avoid risk behaviour.  In particular, we need young people to delay their sexual debut, be faithful to one partner whose status they know, avoid inter-generational & transactional sex, use condoms, avoid drugs, not abuse alcohol, show respect to the opposite gender and avoid risky behaviours.  These are behaviours that young people who make positive healthy decisions, avoid risk behaviour, and make a contribution back to their family and community are likely to display.

These are characteristics that are developed in positive youth development environments that offer a safe setting, positive adult-youth relationships, sustained and regular activity, skills development, and provide for youth participation and leadership.  Youth sport projects that provide these settings and develop the skills and knowledge of the young participants can therefore contribute to HIV prevention by developing positive youth who are also equipped with the comprehensive knowledge of HIV and AIDS that enables them to make informed decisions.

A Theory of Change Model

In our theory of change model it is the community coach who delivers the programme of sports and life skills activity and who creates a positive youth development setting.  In this sense the community coach is an “agent of change” using sport as a means of creating social change.

The Coach & Employability

In most sport for development organisations the beneficiaries are viewed as being the youth, often boys or girls aged 11-18 years.  Sport and life skills training are delivered by the sport for development organisation’s coaching workforce.  A workforce that is commonly made up of volunteer coaches either peer educators aged 15-18 years of age or young people aged 18-30 years of age who are not in employment, education or training (NEETS).  The coaching workforce will commonly be paid a small amount of money called a stipend, or if no payments are made, will be motivated to coach to enhance their curriculum vitae or access other benefits.

The coaching workforce of many  sport for development programmes consist of young people with no vocational or tertiary level education qualifications who face poor employment prospects.  There is therefore a need for sport for development organisations to extend their view of whom their beneficiaries are beyond the boys and girls in their programmes to include their coaching workforce. Development organisations should be concerned with addressing the issues of future employability and sustainable livelihoods.  They should be considering how to support the community coaches in their coaching workforce and to develop them not just as community coaches but also as young people with a future beyond our programmes.

Decent Work

Everyone deserves the opportunity to access decent work as defined by the International Labour Organisation.[v]

“Decent work sums up the aspirations of people in their working lives.  It involves opportunities for work that is productive and delivers a fair income, security in the workplace and social protection for families, better prospects for personal development and social integration, freedom for people to express their concerns, organize and participate in the decisions that affect their lives and equality of opportunity and treatment for all women and men” (International Labour Organisation, 2012).

The reality in most sport for development organisations is that they are not in a position to provide their coaching workforce with sustained decent work.  Such organisations rely on their coaching workforce working for small payments or stipends.  The coaches despite receiving a small payment are considered volunteers and have no job security.  For the majority of sport for development organisations it will be difficult to fund full time coaching positions and to provide for decent work and incomes.  The focus therefore has to be on how we can benefit our community coaches and to assist them prepare for full time employment and decent work.

If we are going to enable young people working in our organisations to access decent work in the long term, we need to be able to meet individual, not just organisational, training and development needs. Each sport for development organisation will want to provide training and development opportunities for their coaching workforce that up skill coaches to deliver quality sports and life skills activities. These trainings lead to a skilled coaching workforce and the delivery of successful sport for development projects. This is training that meets organisational training needs, ensuring each sport for development organisation has suitably qualified coaches available to deliver their programmes.

What this training does not necessarily provide is for the individual development of each coach in terms of their future employability beyond volunteering for little or no remuneration.  Sport for development organisations should be providing their coaching workforce with opportunities to develop skills and gain qualifications that will equip them to enter employment or pursue some entrepreneurial enterprise.

Coaching Systems

The importance of individual coach development is recognised in the International Community Coach Education System (UK Sport International, 2010)[vi].  Coach development is one of the three pillars of the coach system of coach education, personal development and policies/procedures.  The pillar of personal development sets standards for issues such as personalised development planning, mentoring, learning opportunities, recognition/reward, and communication.

Some sport for development organisations are providing ad hoc “employability” training for their coaching workforce addressing issues such as computer training, entrepreneur skills, internships with local business, vocational skills training.  This in addition to the curriculum they have developed either individually or collectively to address organisational training needs around the delivery of sports and life skills coaching.

Other organisations are taking a more formal approach to “employability” training seeking to create a flow of young people through their organisations that move on to acquire sustained and decent work.  An example would be A Ganar Alliance[i] who use soccer and other team sports to help youth throughout Latin America and the Caribbean succeed in the workplace and in life. This is a is an economic empowerment program that uses the power of football to help at-risk youth develop market-driven job skills, become entrepreneurs or return to the formal education system.

The A Aganar Alliance System

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Another example is the approach being taken by Coaching for Hope[viii] in South Africa.  South Africa has a National Qualifications Framework and a sector education and training authority for sport called CATHSSETA[ix].  Employers are looking for job applicants to have a recognised vocational or tertiary level academic qualification that sits on the National Qualifications Framework.  Coaching for Hope is currently working to align its three level football and life skills coaching curriculum with the National Qualifications Framework in South Africa and also with regional community coaching framework, the Supreme Council for Sport in Africa Zone VI Sports Education and Accreditation Standards[x].

In aligning their curriculum with international and national standards Coaching for Hope will add value to the training giving it relevance within the region and recognition within South Africa as a skills development programme.  Those coaches successfully completing the Coaching for Hope training in South Africa will be able to use the training as units or credits towards a full vocational qualification in sports coaching or management.

Coaching for Hope are also seeking ways of enabling community coaches from their partner organisations to not just under take skills development programmes (unit standards) but also to access 12 month training programmes that will lead to full vocational qualifications in sports coaching or management.  Coaching for Hope are also seeking to align their football and life skills training to the National Football Federation coach education curriculum in order to create pathways from their training to recognised National Football coaching awards.

Overview of the Coaching for Hope Alignment Project

Employability Theory of Change

The coaching workforce in sport for development organisations is a critical element of their ability to deliver both sports activity and life skills training. As their “Most Valuable Players” sport for development organisations have a responsibility to develop these young people and help them on their journey towards decent work.   This entails not just providing training that meets each organisation’s needs in terms of quality coaching both of sport and life skills, but also each individual’s training needs in terms of their employability as they progress from working as volunteers in the sport for development field.

In our theory of change for our coaching workforce we envisage moving young people aged 18-30 years of age who are not in employment, education or training towards decent work whilst they are working with our sport for development organisations as community coaches.

The recruitment phase is critical as money and time can be wasted in training individuals who have not attained a reasonable academic level to enable them to benefit from training or who lack the true motivation move towards employment.  The recruitment process should ensure that new members of our coaching workforce have prerequisite qualifications and experience.  An assessment should also made of their motivation and whether they can last the course of the journey to decent work.

Initial training should focus on developing the coaching workforce’s capabilities around delivering sports activities and teaching life skills through sport.  This coach education should be supported in the field by activity programmes, mentoring by more experienced coaches and be supported by clear coaching policies and procedures in areas such as health and safety and child protection.

Community coaches are then deployed to run community based sports activities and to teach life skills.  Once the community coaches have proven their worth in delivering the sport for development organisation’s programmes, they can be selected to undertake training focused on preparing them for decent work.  Some sport for development organisations may wish to partner with other community based organisations that specialise in preparing young people for employment.  Others will develop their own programmes.  Individual coaches will undertake a personal development plan which will include vocational training and work experience in different settings.  Vocational training may be delivered in the form of a college course or a work based learning programme.

The potential exists for sport for development organisations to fund positions in their coaching workforce through work based learner programmes. Such programmes would finance training and a stipend for an extended period of time i.e. 12 months.  The benefit for the sport for development organisation could be the funding of full time coaching positions and for the individual coaches, the possibility of attaining an accredited and nationally recognised qualification.

In addition to working as a community coach, sport for development organisations could broker other relevant work experiences in their local communities for the coaches undertaking work based vocational training.

The final stage before entering the employment market and gaining decent work would be the job seeking stage. Here community coaches would be encouraged to move on from their voluntary positions armed with a recognised vocational qualification.  Training would also be provided in related skills such as interviewing technique, writing a CV, etc.

The individual would now enter employment and earn a decent remuneration.  Although they would most likely move away from the organisation as a full time coach creating the opportunity for new recruits to enter the programme, it is hoped that they would remain affiliated to the sport for development organisation and contribute as an individual in their non-working time.

Employability Theory of Change Model

Figure 6: Employability Theory of Change Model

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[i] http://www.hoopsforhope.org

[ii] http://www.sportanddev.org/newsnviews/news/?997/e-Debate-Pelle-Kvalsund-shares-his-thoughts-in-Round-1

[iii] Schulman, S & Davies, T. (2007), Evidence of the impact of the ‘youth development model’ on outcomes for young people – a literature review, The National Youth Agency.

[iv] Lerner, R. M., Fisher, C. B. & Weinberg, R. A. (2000). Toward a science for and of the people: promoting civil society through the application of developmental science, Child Development, 71, 11–20

[v] http://www.ilo.org/global/topics/decent-work/lang–en/index.htm

[vi] www.uksport.gov.uk/pages/ices/

[vii] http://www.aganar.org

[viii] http://www.coachingforhope.org

[ix]  http://www.theta.org.za

[x] http://www.africazonevi.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=76:seaf-project&catid=1:latest-news&Itemid=66

The Youth Development through Football (YDF) project has published two new manuals, the ‘YDF Manual for HIV Prevention’ and the ‘YDF Manual for Environmental Awareness.’ These manuals demonstrate the potential of football to address social issues amongst youth includingthe important issues of HIV prevention and environmental awareness.

Both manuals were written by Norman Brook in collaboration with experts in each of the fields and a group of YDF trained football coaches.

Commenting on the environmental awareness manual, the GIZ YDF programme stated “What appears at first glance to be an extremely difficult notion is presented in the manual in a manner that is both understandable and extremely vivid. The purpose of the manual is to advise and assist coaches – even those with limited experience in environmental issues.

The first step is to learn about the responsibilities of a coach and how important a coach’s role can be in raising awareness about social issues such as environmental protection. Through the manuals, coaches are equipped with an understanding of the issues and the challenges our communities face today. Moreover, the importance of the three elements of air, water and soil and the concept of biodiversity are introduced and highlighted. The topic of their importance to our everyday life is raised, and practical ideas given on how to use the popularity and potential of football for environmental awareness.

There are many ways in which we can all contribute to protecting our environment through both individual activities and actions taken by the football team and community. In light of this, the YDF Manual for Environmental Awareness introduces strategies to address environmental threats and provides encouragement to take action.”

The YDF Manual for HIV Protection was launched at the Volkswagen’s headquarters in Uitenhague, Eastern Cape, two weeks ago. The official launch of the YDF Manual for Environmental Awareness is scheduled to take place during a side event of COP 17 on 5 December 2011. COP (Conference of the Parties) is an annual summit where the parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), an international environmental treaty informally known as the Earth Summit, assess the progress made in dealing with climate change. The 17th edition of the summit is to be hosted in Durban, South Africa, from 28 November to 9 December 2011.

The GIZ Youth Development through Football (YDF) is a supranational programme implemented by the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH in partnership with the Department of Sport and Recreation South Africa (SRSA) in 10 African countries.

Norman Brook was commissioned to develop manuals and workshops for the YDF short modules using football as a means of promoting HIV Prevention and increasing Environmental Awareness.

Climate Change and the HIV & AIDS pandemic are two of the biggest challenges facing Sub Saharan Africa. Football provides a means of engaging young people and opens up the opportunity to increase their knowledge of HIV and AIDS and of the Environment.

Both manuals can now be downloaded free from the http://www.za-ydf.org/pages/home/  See under tools we offer.

Legacy is that which is handed down from the past. In terms of major sporting events it is what is left after the event is concluded. Legacy planning takes place ahead of major sporting events to ensure that what is left after the event is of benefit to the event’s stakeholders especially the host city and local community. A legacy that depends on an event that has not yet occurred is referred to as the contingent legacy.

So what are the contingent legacies around major sporting events that need to be considered in the legacy planning?

Economic Legacy

A high value is now placed on the ongoing economic benefit. How is the investment in infrastructure, new facilities, jobs, education and training, etc, taken forward? How do the stakeholders in a major sporting event ensure that there is long term sustainability, that new infrastructure supports regeneration, economic development and job creation? How do they ensure that new sporting facilities are used in the future to create economic and social benefit? How is the event used to provide people with new skills that will lead to future employment?

Social Legacy

Investment in major sporting events cannot just be about a few elite sports performers or those who wish to attend and support the event. The investment has to have a long term benefit for communities. How will infrastructure and new facilities benefit local communities?  How will the event help develop local communities by encouraging employment training and volunteering. Is the event being used to support regeneration and the building of socially disadvantaged communities?

Environmental Legacy

Questions also need to be asked as to what the environmental benefits of hosting a major sporting event will be? Protection of the environment needs to be at the heart of planning for infrastructure and facilities. The event also needs to be used as a model of best practice around environmental issues. Therefore strategies need to be created that influence people’s behaviour as much as strategies around environmentally friendly materials for construction or renewable utilities.

Sporting Legacy

One of the biggest challenges to the stakeholders of major sporting events is how to ensure a legacy for sport. A legacy that sees increased mass participation in sport, access to better facilities to play sport, access to coaching, and one which encourages talented young people to take up and excel at sport.

Planning a Sporting Legacy

The organisers and stakeholders of major sporting events cannot assume that a beneficial sporting legacy will result from simply hosting an event.  A sporting legacy needs to be planned for. All major sporting events need to have in place a strategic plan for sports legacy. A strategic plan for sports legacy will detail:

• how the sporting legacy will encourage underrepresented groups to take part in sport, in particular, the previously disadvantaged, the socially disadvantaged, women, and people with a disability.
• how legacy sporting events will be attracted ensuring ongoing use of the facilities and infrastructure developed for the major sporting event;
• how school and youth sport will be developed as a result of the event;
• how sports coaching will be developed as a result of the event;
• how sports volunteers for the event will be retained and deployed for future community and sporting events; 
• how mass participation will be promoted around and then sustained post the event.
• how the sporting legacy will encourage underrepresented groups to take part in sport, in particular, the previously disadvantaged, the socially disadvantaged, women, and people with a disability.

UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon suggested recently that sport could contribute to achievement of the Millennium Development Goals.

He referred to the UN’s use of sport at the Millennium Development Goal (MGD) summit stating:

“We use sport in many of our programmes. Some of the world’s greatest athletes are helping us to raise awareness on important issues, such as hunger, HIV-AIDS, gender equality, education and environmental care.”

“Millions of other people are active every day all over the world in grassroots and sport-for-all projects. They are using sport to promote democratic values, keeping our youth safe from sexually transmitted diseases, steering them from drug use, taking care of our environment. Let us support these wonderful people, these powerful initiatives.”

Ban Ki-moon made reference to the United Nations collaboration with the Olympic movement and to the success of this summer’s World Cup in South Africa as evidence of the power of sport for positive change.

Working in the space that is Sport for Social Change, I am very happy to have someone of Ban Ki-moon’s standing support the use of sport as a development tool and welcome the United Nations recognitiion of the power and value of sport.  I understand the power of sport and how it can change peoples lives, but I have to admit I am scepical that sport can contribute to achievement of the majority of the Millenium Development Goals.  Sport does contribute to wider development goals, but when one considers the eight Millenium Development Goals it is difficult to see how sport contributes to more than two of the goals in a small way.

Goal 1: Eradicate extreme hunger and poverty

Whilst a few individuals might be able to use their sporting talents to rise out of poverty, for the majority it will not matter how much time they spend in sport, its not going to provide them with the social mobility they need to rise out of poverty or the food to feed them.  It could be argued that by teaching life skills, sport can develop self efficacy and that this will help individuals rise out of poverty, but I have not come across any evidence to support that this is happening in any significant way.

Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education

Sport has helped raise awareness around this MDG through the 1 Goal campaign which was centred around the 2010 World Cup.  It also contributes to primary education by supporting school programmes and by supporting informal education of young people.  This is however a smal contribution, as sport cannot deliver primary education on its own.

Goal 3: Promote gender equality and the empowerment of women

Participation of women in sport will help build the character, confidence and self efficacy that girls and women need to move towards a more equitable position. Through taking part in sport, women can also start to challenge negative gender roles and stereotypes; and thus contribute to more equitable gender relationships.  This is one goal that I believe sport can contribute to.

Goal 4: Reduce child mortality

Child mortality rates can be reduced by better health education and health care.  It is hard to see how sport contributes to this challenge except possibly through well known sports personalities lobbying for better health provision.

Goal 5: Improve maternal health

Again it is hard to imagine that sport has a role in addressing this issue.

Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases

Sport for development programmes have been making a contribution to this MDG by promoting positive prevention of HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases.  They have also been working to reduce the stigma and discrimination that impacts people living with HIV/AIDS.

Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability

Sport has been playing its part to address environmental concerns especially through major events and in the sports programme of developed nations.  In the developing world though it is hard to see how sport for social change programmes have really impacted on this MDG.

Goal 8: Develop a global partnership for development

Again this MDG falls outside the scope of sport for development.

The two MDGs that I feel sport for development programmes are helping to address are goals 3 and 6.  Despite making only a small contribution to the wider MDGs, sport continues to be a powerful force for good.  It is promoting positive youth development, addressing social issues such as alchohol and drug abuse, creating safe environments and developing the life skills of orphans and vulnerable children including street children, involving people living with HIV/AIDS, and people living with a disability.  Perhaps when we seek to explain the value of sport for development programmes to beneficiaries and donor/sponsors, we need to look at an impact that extends beyond the eight Millenium Development Goals?

South Africa is one of the six “advanced emerging economies”. The others are Brazil, Hungary, Mexico, Poland and Taiwan.  It could be argued that as an advanced emerging economy, that South Africa should not need international development support.  The reality though is that South Africa, or should I say the majority of those who reside in South Africa, need international development support. If you have doubts regarding the need you may wish to consider the following facts which highlight the massive social challenges that still face South Africa.

1. Inequality

The gap between the rich and the poor in South Africa is increasing.

According to a report from the OECD published in January of this year, South Africa’s “high aggregate level of income inequality” increased between 1993 and 2008, and “the same is true of inequality within each of South Africa’s four major racial groups”. 

2. Poverty

The majority of South Africa’s residents live in poverty.

57% of individuals residing in South Africa in 2001 were living below the poverty income line according to a Human Sciences Research Council report published on the 26th July 2004.

3. Shack Dwellers

More and more South African residents are living in shacks.

“In 1994 there were around 300 informal settlements in South Africa, while today there are more than 2 600.”  according to Human Settlements Minister, Tokyo Sexwale, in a speech delivered in January of this year.

4. HIV/AIDS

South Africa carries about 17% of the world’s HIV/AIDS burden despite accounting for only 0.7% of the world’s population.

An estimated 5.2 million people were living with HIV and AIDS in South Africa in 2008, more than in any other country.  Human Sciences Research Council (2009), ‘South African National HIV Prevalence, Incidence, Behaviour and Communication Survey, 2008: A Turning Tide Among Teenagers?’

It is believed that in 2008, over 250,000 South Africans died of AIDS.  Statistics South Africa (2009, July), ‘Mid-year population estimates 2009’

5. Orphans

There are 1.4 million AIDS Orphans in South Africa.   UNAIDS (2008), ‘2008 Report on the Global AIDS epidemic’

6. Child Abuse

One child is raped in South Africa every three minutes according to the Trade Union Solidarity’s Report published in 2009.

7. Gender Based Violence

Violence against women, including sexual violence, is very widespread in South Africa.

In a large survey, more than four-in-ten South African men reported to have been physically violent to an intimate partner.   Jewkes R (2009, June), ‘Understanding men’s health and use of violence: Interface of rape and HIV in South Africa’, South African Medical Research Council

8. Trafficking

“South Africa is a source, transit, and destination country for men, women, and children trafficked for forced labour and sexual exploitation.” CIA World Facts (2008).

9. Substance Misuse 

“The drug problem in South Africa is extremely serious.   Substance abuse dependency is evident in children as young as 12 – and that age is dropping. One in two children in South Africa had used drugs or alcohol.”  David Bayever, Deputy Chairman, SA Department of Social Development – Central Drug Authority (March 2010).

While the world average for tik and amphetamine use is 0.4% of the population, South African users total 0.9% of the population.

The world average for dagga abuse is 4%, but 12% of South Africans abuse the drug. This is an increase of 4% in a year.

0.8% of South Africans use cocaine. The world average for cocaine use is 0.4% of a population.

Alcohol consumption in South Africa is among the 10 highest in the world. 1.9 million South Africans are alcoholics, 37% of the population are binge drinkers and 10% are classified “risky drinkers”.

10. Xenophobia

“Not only have immigrants been affected by xenophobic violence where 62 people were killed and thousands more displaced, but foreign African workers also suffer labour exploitation.”  Tamar Blieden, South Africa: Immigrants Create Jobs and Add to Economy,  7/06/2008

There are overwhelming social issues in South Africa and a continuing need for international development support to help South African’s address these challenges.

The International Platform on Sport and Development recently conducted an e-debate about Sport-in-Development, with the sub-topic of health providing the context for the discussion.  The debate was conducted through three rounds with each round focused on two key questions.  The main theme of the debate centred on the balance between the sport and educational (life-skills) components of sport-in-development programmes.

Despite growing acceptance that sports based programmes provide a means of addressing wider development objectives (Sport for Development and Peace International Working Group, 2008) there still remains amongst some donors an uncertainty, or even cynicism, as to the effectiveness of such programmes in addressing development goals.  According to Coalter (2007), traditional outcome-based approaches to measuring effectiveness face methodological and environmental difficulties when applied in the sport for development context. These difficulties do not help make the case for donor support of sport-in-development programmes.

As it is difficult to make direct links between participation in sport and the development of positive behaviour amongst young people it is understandable that programmes aimed at addressing social issues such as HIV/Aids, substance abuse, or youth crime, should focus on the educational or life-skills training.  This in turn leads us to the debate on how much sport and how much educational (life skills) training?

In the e-debate, the Norwegian Sport for Development Consultant, Pelle Kvalsund, whom I recently had the pleasure of working with in Johannesburg, makes the case for sport.

 “Sport is what attracts the children and it’s therefore ‘the glue’. If we reduce sport too much, the glue becomes less effective, and the effects of sport start to reduce. Although it’s important to use sport to spread important health messages, we must make sure we don’t ‘kill sport’ in the process.”

Kylie Bates, Senior Sport for Development Consultant for the Pacific Region with the Australian Sports Commission, in contributing to the e-debate, suggests that the issue may be wider than the balance between sport and educational components of sport-in-development programmes and may be more about how the context of such programmes develops positive behaviour.

“It’s well documented in research on topics from tobacco use to safe sex that being informed about health issues is only the first and possibly the least significant step in adopting a healthy behaviour. The crucial next steps involve being convinced the behaviour is worthwhile, taking action, re-confirming the idea is a good one and maintaining the behaviour.

While sport’s convening power provides an opportunity for education (and even that should be applied cautiously “We come to play netball, not learn about aids” said one young participant in a program in Zambia), the real value lies in the influence a quality sport program has on other components of behaviour change process.

For sport to impact on the adoption of healthy behaviours, it needs to do two things well.

Firstly, the sport experience needs to be “sticky” to be valued by its participants. That is, it needs to be inclusive, well organised, challenging and fun. Secondly, the sports activities need to be designed in a way that promotes the factors that contribute to people choosing healthy behaviours.

If a sports program can increase individuals’ ability to lead, network, communicate, cooperate, self determine, become more active, inform each other and develop a sense of responsibility and respect, then there is a strong argument for its contribution to the later parts of the behaviour change cycle.”

This suggests taking a wider view of how youth programmes develop young people to be able to make healthy decisions in life.  Zarret et al (2009) suggest that where sport is combined with life skills training and other factors, such as sustained and positive adult role models and opportunities to develop leadership skills, it can contribute to the development of positive behaviours in young people. 

The study and theory of how different settings develop enhanced positive behaviours and decreased risk behaviours in young people is known as Positive Youth Development (PYD). The PYD movement believe that all young people possess strengths and their families, schools and communities possess development assets. Aligning the strengths that young people have with ecological assets promotes positive youth development.

Lerner (2004) suggests that three important features of effective youth development programmes are:

1. positive, sustained adult-youth relationships;
2. skill-building activities for youth;
3. youth participation and leadership in every facet of the program.

The requirement for positive, sustained adult-youth relationships emphasises the importance of deploying skilled leaders and coaches in sport-in-development programmes and ensuring that their capabilities include being able to work with young people in a positive and sustained manner.

The need for skill-building activities supports the idea of programmes delivering quality sport and educational (life-skills) training.  This means delivering regular quality sport that meets the sporting needs of the young people, along with wider educational (life skills) components that assist personal development.

The practice of involving young people in decision making and developing them as peer leaders is a component of many a sport for development programmes. 

The National Research Council and Institute of Medicine (NRCIM, 2002) suggests that the following eight development assets need to be present in PYD programmes:

1. Physical and Psychological Safety
2. Appropriate Structure
3. Supportive Relationships
4. Opportunities to Belong
5. Positive Social Norms
6. Support for Efficacy and Mattering
7. Opportunity for Skill Building
8. Integration of family, school and community efforts

Lerner (2000) in describing the Positive Youth Development approach suggests that the contexts that bring together young people’s strengths and align these with developmental assets develop five characteristics in young people.  These are:

1. Competence
2. Confidence
3. Character
4. Connection
5. Caring

The development of these personal and social characteristics lead young people to a) make positive contributions to self, family, community and the institutions of a civil society and b) enhanced positive behaviour and reduced risk behaviour.  It is the development of the 5 C’s that lead to young people making healthy decisions.

If the sports and educational (life skills) content are but two of the “development assets” that sport for development programmes need to comprise, perhaps the debate started on the International Platform on Sport and Development needs to be extended so that we can better understand all the components needed to create effective initiatives that lead to positive and healthy decision making in young people.  Do we need to understand better how we create the right context through sport to develop positive youth and reduced risk behaviour in young people and by doing so to be more effective at addressing the wider development goals?

References

Coalter, F. (2007). Sport: A Wider Social Role?: Who’s Keeping the Score?, Routledge, Oxon, UK.

Lerner, R. M., Fisher, C. B. & Weinberg, R. A. (2000). Toward a science for and of the people: promoting civil society through the application of developmental science, Child Development, 71, 11–20

Lerner, R.M. (2004). Liberty: Thriving and civic engagement among America’s youth.

National Research Council and Institute of Medicine (2002) Community programs to promote youth development (Washington, National Academy Press).

Sport for Development and Peace International Working Group (2008), Harnessing the Power of Sport for Development and Peace: Recommendations to Governments, Right to Play, Canada

Zarrett, N., Fay, K., Li, Y., Carrano, J., Phelps, E., Lerner, R. M. (2009) More than Child’s Play: Variable- and Pattern-centered Approaches for Examining Effects of Sports Participation on Youth Development, Developmental Psychology. Vol 45(2), 368-382

Dr Istvan Balyi is acknowledged worldwide as the expert in long term athlete development and the periodization of training plans.  He has led some excellent development work in this area in Ireland, Canada and the UK.  Most recently he has been engaged by the South African Sports Commission and Olympic Committee (SASCOC) to develop long term athlete development (LTAD) plans with South African sports federations.

Dr Istvan Balyi presents on LTAD in South Africa

The LTAD model developed by Balyi and his associates places great importance on the development of physical literacy for both healthy life long enjoyment and for sporting success.  The ages 6-9 in boys and 6-8 in girls is an important phase in the development of physical literacy. Children during these ages need to participate in structured activities that develop basic skills where an emphasis is placed on FUN.

The development of physical literacy at this age is best achieved through unstructured play in a safe and challenging environment; and quality instruction from knowledgeable sports practitioners in schools, community and sports organisations. 

One  of the principles that Dr Balyi recently presented to a group of school teachers and sports coaches in Stellenbosch was that of system alignment.  In the context of developing physical literacy through the FUNdamentals stage this implies that school, community and sports club programmes would be alligned in developing basic movement skills in settings that place an emphasis on FUN.

Alignment may present a challenge in the context of previously disadvantaged communities in South Africa.  Schools lack facilities, equipment and teachers with specialist knowledge in the development of physical literacy.  Physical education and sport had been withdrawn from the school curriculum.  (This problem that has been recognised by President Zuma’s government which has indicated that PE and sport is to be returned to the curriculum).

If children in previously disadvantaged communities are not accessing sport or PE through schools, they are reliant on sports clubs or sport for development initiatives to develop the basic  movement skills needed as a foundation for future participation and excellence in sport.

Coaches in sports clubs in disadvantaged communities may have difficulties in accessing coach education and may have a limited understanding of the need to develop physical literacy at years 6-9 years.  Sports coaches who have not developed and awareness of LTAD principles are likely to be focused on developing specialised sports skills and promoting competition.  For many sports clubs there will be no provision for children as young as 6-9 years leaving them to develop their own skills in unstructured play settings.

Sport for Development initiatives oftenpresent the only opportunity for children to access sport and physical activity.  Such programmes are well organised and provide safe and empowering environments for children to play and develop their life skills.  These initiatives use sport as a development tool and often are more focused on developing the personal and social capabilities of children and young adults. They may be less focused on developing physical literacy and quality sport skills. 

If South Africa is to deliver long term athletes development there will be a need to address the role of schools in delivering quality physical education and the role of practioners in sport for development initiatives in promoting physical literacy.  The principle of alignment will need to be contextualised for Southern Africa and be widened to include the Sport for Development organisations that provide much of the community sports in disadvantaged communities.

Cape Town is already one of the world’s leading sporting cities according to this recent article and completion of the new Cape Town Stadium in Green Point will make it an even more attractive destiantion for sports fans.

Cape Town's Green Point stadium is illuminated as construction officials test the lighting as part of preparations for the 2010 FIFA World Cup, October 27 2009.

According to the article published on the Sports City website, Cape Town was one of the hottest sporting destiations of 2009 as a result of hosting a series of major international events, the weak currency and its perennially sunny perch on the tip of South Africa.

Cape Town Stadium's grass pitch starts to establish.

Cape Town hosted the opening match of this year’s Indian Premier League cricket tournament which was relocated to South Africa because of security concerns. The IPL was followed by the Lions Tour( rugby) and the FIFA Confederations Cup (soccer).

Cape Town is also a popular stop off for major sailing races such as the Volvo Ocean race and hosts major participation events such as the Cape Argus Cycle and Two Oceans Marathon.

Next year it will be the FIFA World Cup and the Cape Town stadium in Greenpoint is fast approaching completition. This week the stadium was illuminated highlighting what an iconic venue it will be for the 2010 World Cup and for other future sporting events.  Sitting near the V&A Waterfront the stadium is also impressive when viewed against the backdrop of Table Mountain.

Norman Brook recently presented a paper on the practice of identifying, confirming and developing sporting talent at a seminar in Fortaleza, Brazil, organised through the International Inspiration programme and hosted by the state government of Ceara.  Brazil will host the Summer Olympic Games in 2016 and identifying and developing talent in Olympic sports will be high on the nations agenda.  The final extract from the paper is featured below.

TOWARDS 2016

With Rio de Janeiro hosting the 2016 Olympic Goals there is now only 6-7 years for Olympic sports in Brazil to identify and develop potential medal winners.  Most of these future Olympians are already participating in their sport, but some will be participating in other sports and others have still to enter sport.

What age will potential medallists be in 2016?  If a similar age to Brazil’s Olympic Champions at the Beijing Olympics in 2008 their ages will range from 21-38 years of age.  The average age would be around 27 years.  If we used this average age then our future Olympic champions will be 20 years of age today.  If we use the lower age of 21 years then they be 14 years of age now.

Figure 4: 6-7 Years left to identify and develop talent for the 2016 Olympic Games.

In track and field athletics, coaches used to suggest it took an individual athlete 12 years of participation in the sport to achieve their top performance.  Ericsson (1993) put forward a theory that it takes ten years or 10,000 hours of deliberate practice to achieve international levels of sporting expertise.

If this is the case then our potential Olympic 2016 champions need to be in sports specific programmes now.

Latest research by Cote et al (in press) has discounted Ericsson’s 10,000 hour rule which is driving thinking in some sports programmes.

Expert performance in sport where peak performance generally occurs after the age of 20 has been achieved with only 3000-4000 hours of sport specific training.  This is borne out by some recent World Champions.  Tom Daley at 15 years won the 2009 World Championships in diving. Having developed a gymnastics background before transferring to diving, it could be argued that this is because he is in an early specialisation sport.  Consider though two other new World Champions in the sports of marathon running and triathlon, both late specialisation sports.  These are sports where top level performances can be achieved at ages of 30-40 years.  Bai Xue is just 20 years and is the 2009 World Marathon Champion. Alistair Brownlee if 21 years and is the 2009 World Triathlon Champion.

References

Baker, J. & Côté J. (2006). Shifting training requirements during athlete development: The relationship among deliberate practice, deliberate play and other sport involvement in the acquisition of sport expertise.

Balyi I.  (2005). The Role of Long Term Athlete Development in Elite Sport. Paper presented at the  IV International Forum on Elite Sport, Montreal.

Côté, J, Baker, J., & Abernethy, B. (in press). Practice and Play in the Development of Sport Expertise.

Delaney, B. J., Donnelly, P., News, J. & Haughey, T. J. (2008). Improving Physical Literacy.

Ericsson, K. A., Krampe, R. Th., & Tesch-Roemer, C. (1993). The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Review, 100, 363-406.

Fraser-Thomas J., Cote J. (2007) Youth Sport: Implementing Findings and Moving Forward with Research.

Gagne, F. (2002). A Differentiated Model of Giftedness and Talent (DMGT), available: www.eduweb.vic.gov.au/edulibrary/public/teachlearn/student/gifted_2002_article.doc

Maslow A.H. (1943), A Theory of Human Motivation, Psychological Review 50(4) (1943):370-96.